work of the month


(click on image to enlarge)

Vishnu

Chola, 11th-12th Century
In the Indian Gallery
Gift of Walter P. Chrysler, Jr. 71.313

What is Hinduism?

Hinduism is one of the oldest religious traditions in India, dating back to the 2nd millenium B.C. with tribes in the Indus River Valley. These tribes established four social classes that were fundamental to the Hindu faith - the priests (brahmans), warriors (kshatriyas), merchants/tradesmen (vaishyas), and laborers (shudras). People outside of this caste structure were considered untouchable "outcastes."

Three main gods comprise the Hindu principle of the universe - The Creator (Brahma), The Preserver (Vishnu), and The Destroyer (Shiva). While different cultic worship customs have emerged around each god, Hindus worship thousands of lesser divinities and share similar philosophical ideas under the authority of these three primary gods.


Hindus generally believe that people live more than one life (reincarnation), and that the effects of one's actions (karma) will determine one's character and position in the next life. The devout Hindu's goal is to reach a state of release (moksha) from the pains of daily life. Three means by which one attains this release are: practicing yoga to calm the mind spiritually and physically, observing the caste or social class system, and surrendering to a god such as Shiva or Vishnu to be granted release as a gift of grace.

The Attributes of Vishnu

Vishnu's powers encompass a mind-boggling host of duties. He is ruler of the heavens and earth, creator of all life, maintainer of the universe, and the protector of the helpless. While his duties often overlap with other gods, consistent physical attributes of Vishnu statuary recall the deity's primary powers. Dealing with a myriad of gods and goddesses, Hindu artists assigned specific symbols, hand gestures, and body positions to each deity, to help devotees identify them. Take a look at the Vishnu before you, and identify the following attributes:

  • Conch Shell
    Notice the object in Vishnu's upper left hand. This conch shell represents the god's great power of creation, and it reminds devotees of the primordial waters from which the universe was formed. According to Hindu mythology, Vishnu saved the earth goddess from a serpent king who had drawn her into the depths of churning ocean waters.
  • Discus
    In Vishnu's upper right hand, the discus (Sudarshana) represents the god's strong power of destruction. With this razor-sharp weapon, Vishnu destroys his enemies and restores righteousness.
  • Mace or Club
    Vishnu's lower left hand implies a steadying gesture. Some depictions show a mace or club in this hand with which the god intimidates those who oppose truth and righteousness. Other depictions, like this one, only suggest the mace through the steadying hand gesture.
  • Abhaya mudra
    Although Vishnu's lower right hand is now missing, researchers suggest that this raised hand typically indicated a divine gesture (mudra) of comfort. Through this detail, the artist suggests the merciful and kind attributes of Vishnu to complement the god's creator-destroyer attributes.

  • Considered one of the greatest Hindu gods, Vishnu is usually depicted wearing clothing fit for a Hindu king. He wears a heavy loincloth (dhoti) reaching below the knees, a jeweled headpiece (kirita), and a sacred cord (upavita) that drapes across his chest, indicating upper caste traditional male dress. Unusual physical characteristics - such as multiple arms, eyes, and heads, or animal-like features - were often incorporated into the making of gods to remind devotees that these divinities were fantastically more powerful than ordinary humans.

    Who were the Chola people?

    The history of India is marked by a series of ruling families, or dynasties, that competed militarily around the country's three major river valleys for centuries. The Chola period began in 897 A.D. with the Chola raja Aditya's attack on the current ruling dynasty, the Pallavas of southern India. After this military success, the Cholas usurped the holy city of Madurai early in the 10th century, and then moved southward to invade Sri Lanka. Chola military victories ultimately extended northward to the banks of the Ganges River.

    Bronze casting was the Chola's chief legacy to art history. Using a lost wax process, Chola artisans created fantastically detailed bronze objects during the 10th-12th centuries. While the Chrysler's stone Vishnu most likely decorated an Indian temple, smaller bronze figures might have been decorated with flowers and paraded through the streets on a cart during special religious occasions.

    How are Hindu, Buddhist, and Islamic art connected?

    Hinduism and Buddhism are considered two of the most significant religions of India. Because these belief systems share much in common, such as personal responsibility and tolerance, they have peacefully coexisted for centuries, blending artistic traditions as well. Buddhism gained popularity in India during the 1st and 2nd centuries A.D. because it had no priesthood and no regard for a caste system, a refreshing change from the traditional fixed Hindu caste system. Buddhism became so widely accepted in Hindu society that eventually, Hindus accepted Buddha as the 9th incarnation of Vishnu.

    Another major religion, Islam, infiltrated Indian society beginning slowly in the 8th century A.D. with the invasion of Muslim tribes from the north. After this time, Indian art became more confined to architectural and decorative design, as Islam forbade the creation of idols. Many decorative tapestries on view at the Chrysler Museum of Art are devoid of any god-like imagery. Buddhism all but disappeared by the 13th century, once Muslim invaders dominated the Ganges Valley, but the deeply ingrained social structure and religious practices of Hinduism have remained. Much Hindu and Buddhist art was destroyed by these Islamic invasions.

    -- - Julie Strohkorb

    RESOURCES

    Craven, Roy C. A Concise History of Indian Art. New York: Oxford University Press, 1975.

    De la Croix, Horst and Richard G. Tansey, Eds. Gardner's Art Through the Ages. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1986.

    Pal, Pratapaditya. The Sensuous Immortals: A Selection of Sculptures from the Pan-Asian Collection. Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1977.

    Pal, Pratapaditya. Indian Sculpture: Volume One. Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1986.

    Sinha, Ajay J. Five Questions About Indian Art. Philadelphia: Philadelphia Museum of Art, 1994.

    Special thanks:

    Much research in this article was compiled from museum docent information courtesy of Joseph M. Dye III, the E. Rhodes and Leona B. Carpenter Curator of South Asian and Islamic Art at the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts in Richmond.

©2008 Chrysler Museum of Art Copyright Info

245 West Olney Road, Norfolk, Virginia 23510 757.664.6200